Chapter 5: Functions

Chapter Goals

• To be able to program functions and procedures
• To become familiar with the concept of parameter passing
• To recognize when to use value and reference passing
• To appreciate the importance of function comments
• To be able to determine the scope of variables
• To minimize the use of side effects and global variables
• To develop strategies for decomposing complex tasks into simpler ones
• To document the responsibilities of functions and their callers with preconditions

Functions as Black Boxes

• A function is a piece of code assigned to a name.
  • sqrt() -- computes the square root of a floating point number
  • getline() -- reads a line from the stream
• Functions can be thought of as black boxes - you don't need to know the internals of the code.
• The execution of main() is temporarily suspended while a function is running.

Functions as Black Boxes

• Many functions have input values or parameters that are transferred or passed into the function.
  • The x in y = sqrt(x);
  • Both the x and the y in z = pow(x, y);
  • Could be an expression as in sqrt(b * b - 4 * a * c);
• Many functions have output or return values.
  • The y in y = sqrt(x);
• Both parameters and return values are a particular type.
  • You cannot compute sqrt("Harry");
  • You cannot assign string s = sqrt(5.5);

Writing Functions (Syntax 5.1 : Function Definition)

return_type function_name(parameter1, ..., parametern)
{
   statements
}

double abs(double x)
{
   if (x >= 0) return x;
   else return -x;
}

Writing Functions (Syntax 5.1 : Function Definition)

• To create a function, we must supply its name, return type, and a list of parameters and their names.

  double future_value(double p)

• For the duration of the function, the parameter is stored in a parameter variable (in this example, p).
• The body of the function is delimited by braces (just like main()):

  double future_value(double p)
  {
     . . . 
  }

• Code is included to perform the computation. The result is returned to the caller function.

  double future_value(double p)
  {
     double b = 1000 * pow(1 + p / 100, 10);
     return b;
  }

Writing Functions (futval.cpp)

Writing Functions (Hard Wired Values)

• The future_value function in futval.cpp is flawed because the starting amount of the investment and the number of years are hard-wired.
• Hard-wiring prevents reuse of functions:
  • Computing the balance after 20 years.
  • Computing the balance with a different interest rate.
• We avoid hard-wiring values into functions by passing them in as additional parameters.
• Functions are more valuable when they are reusable.

double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
{
   double b = initial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
   return b;
}

Function Comments

• We must comment every function, even if it seems silly.
• Comments are for human readers, not compilers.
• There is no universal standard for comment layout, but this book uses the javadoc style.
  • An @param entry explaining each parameter
  • An @return entry describing the return value
• Comments do not explain the implementation, but the idea.
• Writing comments first, before writing the function code, to test your understanding of what you need to program.

Function Comments

/**
   Computes the value of an investment with compound interest.
   @param intial_balance the initial value of the investment
   @param p the interest rate pre period in percent
   @param n the number of periods the investment is held
   @return the balance after n periods
*/
double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
{
   double b = initial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
   return b;
}

Return Values (Syntax 5.2 : return Statement)

return expression;

return pow(1 + p / 100, n);

Return Values

• When the return statement is processed, the function exits immediately.

  double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
  {
     if (n < 0) return 0;
     if (p < 0) return 0;
     double b = initial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
     return b;
  }

• It is important that every branch of a function return a value.

  double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
  {
     if (p >= 0) 
        return = initial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
     /* Error */
  }

• Functions that returns a truth value is called a predicate.

  bool approx_equal(double x, double y)
  {
     const double EPSILON = 1E-14;
     if (x == 0) return fabs(y) <= EPSILON;
     if (y == 0) return fabs(x) <= EPSILON;
     return fabs(x - y) / max(fabs(x), fabs(y)) <= EPSILON;
  }

Return Values (approx.cpp)

Parameters

• When a function starts, its parameter variables are initialized with the expressions in the function call.

  b = future_value(total / 2, rate, year2 - year1);

• It is entirely legal to modify the values of the parameter variables later.

  double future_value(double, initial_balance, double p, int n)
  {
     p = 1 + p / 100;
     double b = initial_balance * pow(p, n);
     return b;
  }

• Many programmers consider this practice bad style.

Parameters (Syntax 5.3 : Function Declaration (or Prototype))

return_type function_name(parameter1, ..., parametern);

double abs(double x);

• Function declaration resolves compiler confusion that can arise when one function calls another.
• It also makes programs easier to read.

Side Effects

• An externally observable effect of a function is called a side effect.
  • Displaying characters on the screen (including error messages).
  • Updating variables outside the functions.
  • Terminating the program.
• A function should leave no trace of its existence except for returning a value.
• Functions that print values become worthless in certain situations.
  • Graphics programs that have no output streams.
  • Programs where the user's language is not English.
  • Programs that don't want to print the value!
• Ideally, a function computes a single value and has no other side effect.

Procedures

• A function without a return value is called a procedure.

  print_time(now);

• The missing return value is indicated by the keyword void.

  void print_time(Time t)
  {
     cout << t.get_hours() << ":";
     if (t.get_minutes() < 10) cout << "0";
     cout << t.get_minutes() << ":";
     if (t.get_seconds() < 10) cout << "0";
     cout << t.get_seconds();
  }

• Since a procedure does not have a return value, it must have a side effect.
• Ideally, a procedure has only one side effect.

Procedures (printime.cpp)

Reference Parameters

• The parameter variables we have looked at so far are called value parameters.
• Value parameters are separate variables from the ones in main() (or another calling function).
• Modification of value parameters does not affect the original value.
• A reference parameter does not create a new variable, but refer to an existing variable.
• Any change in a reference parameter is actually a change in the variable to which it refers.
• Reference parameters are indicated using an & between the parameter's type and name.

  void raise_salary(Employee& e, double by)
  {
     double new_salary = e.get_salary() * ( 1 + by / 100);
     e.set_salary(new_salary);
  }

Reference Parameters (Syntax 5.4 : Reference Parameters)

type_name& parameter_name

Employee& e
int& result

Reference Parameters (raisesal.cpp)

Reference Parameters (Syntax 5.5 : Constant Reference Parameters)

const type_name& parameter_name

const Employee& e

• Reference parameters are more efficient than value parameters because they do not make copies of the parameters.
• Passing variables by constant reference improves performance, but prevents the function from changing the value of the parameter.
• Objects make good constant reference parameters because they tend to have several attributes that need to be copied. Passing numbers by constant reference is generally not worth the effort.

Variable Scope and Global Variables (Variable Scope)

• You can have variables with the same name in different functions.
• The part within a program in which a variable is visible is known as the scope of the variable.
• The scope of a variable extends from its definition to the end of the block in which it was defined.
• Example:

  double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
  {
     double r = intial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
     return r;
  }
  
  int main()
  {
     cout << "Please enter the interest rate in percent: ";
     double r;
     cin >> r;
  
     double balance = future_value(10000, r, 10);
     cout << "After 10 years the balance is" << balance
        << "\n";
  
     return 0;
  }

Variable Scope and Global Variables (Global Variables)

• Global variables are variables that are defined outside functions.
• A global variable is visible to all functions that are defined after it.
• Sometimes global variables cannot be avoided (cin, cout, and cwin), but you should make every effort to avoid global variables in your program.

Variable Scope and Global Variables (global.cpp)

Stepwise Refinement

• One of the most powerful strategies for problem solving is the process of stepwise refinement.
• To solve a difficult task, break it down into simpler tasks; then keep breaking down the simpler tasks into even simpler ones, until you are left with tasks that you know how to solve.
• How do you get coffee?
  • Ask someone else to do it.
  • Make coffee.
• OK, how do you make coffee?
  • Make instant coffee.
  • Brew Coffee.
• How do you make instant coffee?
• Start by boiling water.
• Etc.

From Pseudocode to Code

• Before starting to program, we need to have a plan.
• Any time you need something more than once, it's a good idea to turn that into a function..
• Rather than writing the entire function, begin by writing the comments.
• Example: Writing the function

  /**
     Turns a number into its English name.
     @param n a positive integer < 1,000,000
     @return the name of n (e.g. "two hundred seventy four"
  */
  string int_name(int n);

From Pseudocode to Code

• Break the problem into sub-tasks and design subprograms.

  /**
     Turns a digit into its English name
     @param n an integer between 1 and 9
     @return the name of n ("one" ... "nine")
  */
  string digit_name(int n);
  
  /**
     Turns a number between 10 and 19 into its English name.
     @param n an integer between 10 and 19
     @return the name of n ("ten"..."nineteen")
  */
  string teen_name(int n);
  
  /**
     Gives the English name of a multiple of 10
     @param n an integer between 2 and 9
     @return the name of 10 * n ("twenty"..."ninety")
  */
  string tens_name(int n);

• What is missing?
  • For hundreds, we show the digit name then write "hundreds".
  • For 100 - 999, we can put calls to functions above together to write number.
  • For numbers over 1,000, we call functions above to write the number of thousands, print "thousands", then call the above functions again to write the rest of the number.

From Pseudocode to Code

• When algorithms are complicated, we first write them as pseudocode.
• Pseudocode is somewhere between C++ and English.

  string int_name(int n)
  {
    int c = n; /* the part that needs to be converted */
    string r; /* the return value */
  
    if (c >= 1000)
    {
        r = name of thousands in c + "thousand"
        remove thousands from c
    }
  
    if (c >= 100)
    {
        r = r + name of hundreds in c + "hundreds"
        remove hundreds from c
    }
  
    if (c >= 20)
    {
        r = r + name of tens in c
        remove tens from c
    }
  
    if (c >= 10)
    {
        r = r + name of c
        c = 0
    }
  
    if (c > 0)
        r = r + name of c;
  
    return r;
  }

From Pseudocode to Code (intname.cpp)

From Pseudocode to Code

• Pseudocode can be easier to understand than a verbal description.
• It's best not to muddy the pseudocode with minor details.
• The pseudocode did not take into account spaces between the words.
• Note that the helper functions needed to be declared before the int_name function.
• The int_name function calls itself (called recursion):

  if (c >= 1000)
  {
     r = int_name(c / 1000) + " thousand";
     c = c % 1000;
  }

Walkthroughs

• Before entrusting a subprogram to a computer, it is a good idea to put it through a dry run or walkthourgh.
• Take out an index card and write down the name of the function you want to study.
• Write down the names of the function variables in a table, since you will update them as you walk through the code.

int_name(n = 416)
c	r
416	""

• When your function calls another function, you can either start another card, or assume that it performs correctly.

int_name(n = 416) c r 416 ""

digit_name(n = 4) Returns "four"

Walkthroughs

• As the function progresses, update the variables by crossing out old values and writing down the new ones.

int_name(n = 416)
c	r
416	""
16	"four hundred"

int_name(n = 416)
c	r
416	""
16	"four hundred"
0	"four hundred sixteen"

Preconditions

• What should a function do when called with an inappropriate value (e.g. sqrt(-1))?
  • A function can fail safely. For example, the digit_name function simply returns an empty string when it is called with an unexpected value.
  • A function can terminate. Many functions in the cmath library will terminate if given an illegal value.
• The most brutal method is to print a message and terminate the entire program.
• C++ has a very sophisticated mechanism called an exception.
• Whenever possible, it is desirable to avoid termination of the program (although that is hard).
• We will discuss using assert().

Preconditions (Syntax 5.6 : Assertions)

assert(expression);

assert(x >= 0);

Preconditions

• To use assert() you must #include<cassert>.
• assert() is really a macro - a special instruction to the compiler that inserts complex code into the program.

  double future_value(double initial_balance, double p, int n)
  {
     assert(p >= 0);
     assert(n >= 0);
  
     return initial_balance * pow(1 + p / 100, n);
  }

• As a programmer, you must fully document any preconditions that the function must meet. That is, the legal values for function input.

  /**
     Computes the value of an investment with compound interest.
     @param initial_balance the initial value of the investment
     @param p the interest rate in percent; must be >= 0
     @param n the number of periods the investment is held; must be >= 0
     @return the balance after n periods
  */

• If a function call does not satisfy the preconditions, the function is free to do anything.
  • Function causes the program to terminate.
  • Return a "safe" default value.